Torture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Torture - Essay Example On the other side are those who believe that the allowance of torture destroys our national commitment to the inherent rights of all human beings. In the middle of this heated debate are those who believe that psychological torture, non-physical torture, should be permissible. It is not agreed that America should be permitted to use torture as a means of obtaining information from detainees. The United States was established on absolute principles of human rights, and the use of torture, whether physical or non-physical, past or present, violates those principles. for terrorists who suffer, or for those who die mercilessly at the hands of their torturers. Unfortunately that is human emotion at work, not ethics. Torture is a violation of human rights. In his Time to Think About Torture, Jonathan Alter admits that "we can't legalize physical torture; it's contrary to American values."1 The UN convention against torture came into force in 1987, prohibiting the acts that cause severe pain or suffering in order to gain information from prisoners. Alter wonders if using methods just short of physical torture will force four hijacking suspects to talk.2 He also added that he was not advocating the use of "cattle prods" or "rubber hoses", but "psychological torture."3 The act of psychological torture is subjecting a prisoner to mental stress, such as sleep deprivation, putting them in stressful situations, and sensory deprivation, in order to force a confession. Psychological torture, which leaves no visible signs of abuse, is still torture, and is illegal. According to research, prisoners subjected only to psychological torture report as much mental anguish as those who are beaten. The lasting effects psychological torture inflicts are as detrimental as those of physical torture. Novelist and journalist Henry Porter, wrote in his article that "torture is an absolute evil and there can be no allowances, especially in a country which stands for liberty and spends a good deal of time distinguishing itself from the Taliban and al-Qaeda on those grounds."4 If we as a nation disregard the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, our Constitution, and the UN convention against torture by using the same tactics as the Taliban and al-Qaeda, then we become no different than the ones we oppose. Terrorism has spread fear among Americans. Our citizens have desperately tried to justify the means of torture. The ticking bomb scenario, which implies that torture should be used to gain useful information that may prevent the possible loss of many lives, is just a scenario. It is a tactic used to persuade fearful Americans that torture is necessary. In discussing the fear of Americans, Porter states, "It is to be hoped that their very understandable fears do not lead to a further deterioration of human rights."5 Common sense and intelligence should be used to fight terrorism, not torture created by fear that opposes human rights. Torture is counterterrorism. Advocating any type of torture defeats the purpose of the Constitution, which guarantees protection against cruel and unusual punishment. Just as slavery and genocide are wrong for America, so is torture. Torture, whether physical, psychological, mild or severe,

Taylorism Is An Outmoded And Outdated Form Of Technical Control Essay Example for Free

Taylorism Is An Outmoded And Outdated Form Of Technical Control Essay Perfected by Henry Ford, Taylorism was developed in the early 20th Century and was a revolutionary outlook on scientific management. Its aim was to make the workplace a science, taking all control away from the worker and placing total power in the hands of management. By observing workers behaviour and how long it was taking for tasks to be completed he believed he could say how much an average worker could produce under optimum conditions. Using this he devised a means of detailing a division of labour in time-and-motion studies and a wage system based on performance. At the time and throughout the last century Taylorism was and has been the only way to manage, but is it now outdated and irrelevant. I hope to be able to provide some of the arguments for and against this viewpoint and give examples of Taylorism. First, what exactly is Taylorism? Simply Taylorism is the breaking down of the production process into simple, menial tasks to the extent that even the most unskilled worker can be efficient. He researched these methods knowing that management lacked the knowledge to maximise production and that workers were not efficient. Taylor spoke about rewarding good men i.e. good employees, with higher pay for completing tasks or working harder. He called for scoring and ranking workers, thus posing the argument: how can one compare someone who is really good at a given task against someone who is good at another task? The two individuals may well be very good at what they do; however, it quite often requires a mix of these talents to produce a quality product or service. Taylor also aimed to transfer the control of the work process away from the individual worker and instead have the work performed in a way that is detailed by management who train the worker and share all the responsibilities. He used pig-iron handlers during the American-Spanish war to test his theories. He picked the four best workers and, in exchange for a higher wage, asked them to work under a managers orders. The manager had complete control, telling them when they could have a break, when to pick up more iron, how much to lift etc. The experiment was a resounding success; with one man Schmidt working at a constant 47.5 tonnes a day. This was used to show that Taylorism could work. However it could be argued that the experiment was fixed as it used workers who were mentally sluggish and therefore, by their nature, were more likely to follow orders than to think for themselves. Nevertheless Taylorism became the standard for businesses worldwide and this led to a clockwork world of tasks timed to the hundredth of a minute for standardized factories, machines and the de-humanising of men and women. A man named Braverman argued in his book in the 70s that because of Taylor and Ford, more and more jobs became and are becoming deskilled and de-humanised and the thought processes are being taken over by managers and programmed into machines (Braverman 1974). This raises a very important point about Taylorism; it makes processes so precise and repetitive that humans are being turned into machines. In this state as machines, humans are very easy to control and so it could be argued that Taylorism, whilst being effective as a production method, is also designed to control the workforce and thus highly skilled workers threaten labour control. Read more:Â  Scientific Management Taylorism Such early 20th century thought is being practised not only in business, but in the schools as well where students, like workers, are be scored and ranked. Now we have moved to a system where this ranking and grading of students and schools is of such importance that they are no longer run by teachers, but managed by managers to improve efficiency. Whilst not being a strict example of Taylorism, it shows how Taylors ideas have changed the way people think in that people now assume anything and everything can be ranked. Whilst on the subject of culture changes that have been influenced by Taylor, it can be argued that Taylorism has led to gender differences. Women have been, at least they were, categorized into certain jobs; mainly clerical and secretarial. This may not be as true today with many high-powered businesswomen in the world but, especially in the 60s, this was true. Taylorism is scientific management but how scientific is it? In Websters book there is a case where a businessman complained about how slow his secretary worked and asked, How many times a minute should she be able to open and close a file drawer? The workers handbooks answer would be Exactly 25 times. Times for other open and close operations would be .04 minutes for opening and closing a folder, and .026 minutes for opening a standard centre desk drawer (Webster, J 1990). Another example of the scientific nature of Taylorism can be seen in UPS, the parcel company. Management have said that workers should walk at 3ft per second, packages should be carried under the left arm and that drivers should step into the van with their right foot first whilst holding the keys in the middle finger of the right hand. These are two classic and blatant time-and-motion pigeonholing that leads to the de-humanizing of the worker. This pigeonholing can be classically seen in some of todays big business, especially in fast-food chains. McDonalds, the most classically discussed example, where there is absolutely no autonomy for the worker; they have no option about what to do. Machines are set to cook quarter-pounders in 107 seconds and fries in 150 seconds. Guns exist that put exactly the same amount of sauce in each burger and fill the drinks to the right level. All the worker has to do is put it together and place in a bag. Even the bagging process is Taylorised; workers must place the goods in the bag in the correct order. Ritzer sees McDonalds as a paradigm of efficiency that has led to a consumer being able to go into any McDonalds in the world and expect the same service and the same product. This very tedious monotonous work has very little job satisfaction and so to keep the worker motivated McDonalds have used Taylors idea about incentives. McDonalds have a star system which rewards hard working individuals with stars. These stars are worn on the name badge to show the consumer that they are a noted worker. More importantly it develops a friendly rivalry within the store as workers compete to win stars. This leads to more productive and efficient workers. Some workers can take this to extremes however. A friend of mine started in McDonalds and almost straight away was working up to two hours overtime on closing shifts. He earned his stars very quickly as well as employee of the month two months in a row and within 8 months was promoted to floor manager. This is, in my view, a slightly extreme case as he is naturally a hard worker but shows how hard work is rewarded in McDonalds. The efficiency of McDonalds and its ability to retain workers has made it a very successful multinational company. Leidner argues in his book that the drive for efficiency within McDonalds has led to inefficiency for the consumer as it turns them into involuntary unpaid labour because they have to queue for the food, clear their own rubbish away etc. For McDonalds to be as efficient as it is, it must offer a very restricted menu so that deliveries and production can be streamlined. This leads to a loss for the consumer who can only expect a very small choice from McDonalds. In the beginning this may have been a problem but now people go to McDonalds and expect a burger, fries and a drink which are the same every time. Despite these critiques of Taylorism there are authors who believe that Taylorism is as relevant today as it ever was. Taksa argues in her 1992 article that Taylor and his ideas are still useful in resolving todays management issues especially as firms are larger these days. The limiting of verbal exchange due to written instructions means that the teaching mangers are also under as much control as the workers from the planning group (Taksa,1992). This is especially useful in the large firms of today where middle management can be very large and therefore they must be put under the same controls as the workers. Many firms however are extremely efficient and successful without adopting Taylorist methods. It can be argued that Taylorism is not suitable for every type of business. An example of this is Dixons, where I used to work, where if any type of technical control would greatly hinder the sales of goods and insurance. The salesperson must have the freedom to react to the customers situation and what they say. There would be no way of, for example, telling sales staff that this type of person must have this product or that the sale must be complete in x minutes. It would be impossible to implement as, unlike McDonalds, every customer is different with different needs and without talking these needs cannot be ascertained to result in the sale of a product. Even shops are individual, while common theme run from shop to shop, where products are placed and how they are displayed is up to the mangers discretion and not controlled by main management. So to conclude; Taylorism is a very restrictive practise which leads to the de-humanising of the worker and complete management control. However it is an extremely efficient and productive system. I would say that in certain business environments, like McDonalds, it is the only way to manage that would produce effective results. However nowadays individuals require job satisfaction out of their roles and to that end Taylorism is outdated as it allows no sort of autonomy and thus make working very dull. To that end I cannot conclude either way; Taylorism is very effective in the food sector where customers are indistinguishable from each other but would be highly ineffective once individuals needs must be catered for. Bibliography Braverman, H.: Labour And Monopoly Capital: The Degradation Of Work In The 20th Century, 1974. Monthly Review Press, NY Leidner, R: Fast Food, Fast Talk, 1993. University Of California Press Ritzer, G: The McDonaldisation Of Society, 1993. Pine Forge Press Taksa, L: Scientific Management: Technique Or Cultural Ideology?. Webster, J: Office Automation, 1990. Harvester Wheatsheaf

Mary Crow Dog in the American Indian Movement :: essays research papers

During the American Indian Movement, many Native Americans tribes came together as a unit and fought against the injustices that were thrust upon them by American governmental polices. The fact that many Native people were ?whitemanized? through Christianity and other things that such as boarding school played a role in shaping Native peoples identity. However, the involvement in the American Indian Movement shaped the identity of Mary Crow Dog by making her accept who she was ?an Indian woman, and by making her more willing to fight for the rights of Native Americans. Before joining the American Indian Movement, Mary Crow Dog was forced into boarding school and she questioned her identity many times. For instance, she said that as a young girl she wanted to know who she was because her skin was very light. Because of this she wanted a to lay out in the sun so that she could become a real skin Indian. She questioned her Indian identity because her father was white and also because she was a ?iyeska.? This meaning a half blood Indian and as a result she was looked down upon by white people and full bloods Indians. When Mary Crow Dog joined the American Indian Movement, her outlook on life as an Indian changed because she accepted who she was and she was proud of being and Indian as well. She held on to her old religion and she participated in old Indian traditions such as Ghost dancing. She also went back to using medicine man and peyote roadman. In her point of view ?holding on to her own religion was one way of resisting a slow death of the Indian culture that was being perpetuated by the white man. In addition, she stated that to be an Indian she had to go to the full bloods and listen to what they had to say. This is because the full blood was humble and they had hearts. Another thing that allowed Mary Crow dog to accept who she was, was the fact that AIM brought a lot of different tribes together and they all fought collectively against White America. One of the most important things that the American Indian Movement did for Mary Crow dog was it made her more willing to fight for Indian rights. For example, she protested in Washington with AIM and she was part of the native people that took over the Bureau of Indian Affairs building.

Development and frameworks support development influence current practice Essay

Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development focusses on how children acquire knowledge and learn. He believed that when a child and an adult are given the same logical question children gave less sophisticated answers, not because they were less competent than the adults but because children are born with an extremely simple mental structure which is the basis for the child’s knowledge and learning ability. He suggests that children go through four stages of intellectual growth: 0-2yrs – Sensorimotor, i.e. motor control and learning about objects, the child explores the environment around them using their senses; 2-7yrs – Preoperational, verbal skills development, the child understands the use of symbols and language; 7-11yrs – Concrete Operational, beginning to grasp abstract concepts, shows logical thinking; 12yrs to adulthood – Formal Operational, logical and systematic reasoning skills, is able to work through abstract problems. One of the basic components of Piaget’s theory is ‘Schemas’. Each schema is a building block of intelligent behaviour and a way of a child’s brain organising the knowledge they have gained. Children will develop new schemas as they learn and experience more to allow them to retain this knowledge, as well as modifying their existing schemas as new information about them emerges through additional knowledge. We can effectively plan the development of a child by taking his ideas of ‘schemas’ into practice and using Piaget’s stages we can assess where and how a child is currently learning. From assessment it becomes possible to plan activities to help them to develop onto the next stage. Psychoanalytical Sigmund Freud (1856 1939) An Austrian neurologist Freud believed that each stage of a child’s development directly related to specific needs and demands, each based on a particular body part and was rooted with a sexual base. Freud outlined these stages as oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital. Each stage involves the satisfaction of a desire and can later play a role in the adult personality. Freud suggested that if a child does not successfully complete a stage, they could develop a fixation that would later influence adult personality and behaviour. According to Freud the mind can be split into two halves, the conscious (mental processes we are aware of) and the unconscious mind (mental processes we are unaware of), and has three separate aspects – the Id (the conscious mind), Ego and Superego (unconscious mind) which all need to be balanced to have good mental health. The Id is about basic needs and feelings, the pleasure principle. The Ego is the reality principle and the Superego is the moral part of the mind. Freud’s theories about unconscious actions can still be witnessed, for example when a child is caught hurting another child. The aggressor may deny it and tell a lie, but may start to cry because he knows what he has done is wrong, and that he has lied about it. Whilst Freud’s psychosexual theories do not fit well with today’s more scientific standards and are considered not to be very accurate, they have been influential because it was original thinking about human development, and many other theorists used his ideas as a starting point. He has also helped those working with children by understanding there is a link between our conscious and unconscious actions. Humanist Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) An American psychologist Abraham Maslow was a humanistic psychologist who is most famous for his ‘Hierarchy of Needs’, which is relevant to all ages, not just for children. The five-stage hierarchy of needs is often visually displayed as a pyramid with the largest most important needs at the bottom and the more advanced needs at the top We are born with basic needs for survival, food, water, shelter and sleep which is represented in the first layer. Without these nothing else is possible. Once these needs are met we can progress to the next level which consists of a need for feeling safe and secure. We seek safety from others and strive to be in an environment that keeps us safe and free from harm. The third level is our need for love, our desire for acceptance and our need to fit in. At this level we seek out love, friendships and intimacy. The fourth level is our need for esteem, achievement, education and respect. At this level we focus our attention on self-respect and respect from others. We seek information and knowledge through education, strive to make advancements in our careers and work towards an overall higher self-worth. The fifth and final level in the hierarchy is our need for self-actualisation, the need to reach our fullest  potential with complete understanding of ourselves. According to Maslow very few people if any, master this level. Our basic needs (1st level) are essential for our survival. We need to feel safe (2nd level) before we can develop friendships which will give us a sense of belonging (3rd level). Once we have developed friendships we seek the esteem of self and others (4th level). This demonstrates how each layer must be fulfilled before moving up to a higher level. Maslow’s theories are very relevant to child development and care. Based on his hierarchy of needs a child would find it very hard to learn if their basic needs are not being met, for example a hungry or thirsty child would find it difficult to focus their attention to learn as the most basic need must be met first. A simple solution of snack time in between lessons and having drinking water available would help to overcome this problem. Addressing a child’s most basic needs will help them to grow, learn and develop. Social learning Albert Bandura born 1925, an American psychologist Bandura states that behaviour is learned from the environment, i.e. behaviours of others, and then imitated. His famous experiment in 1961 – the Bobo doll study – involved a film being shown of an adult beating up a Bobo doll and shouting aggressive words. This was then shown to a group of children and after watching the film they were allowed to play in the room that held the Bobo doll. All the children began to beat up the doll and were physically and verbally aggressive towards it, even though nurturing toys were available to play with the doll. They were apparently imitating the actions of the adult they had seen in the film. This was seen as an important break away from the behaviourist theory that behaviour is directed by reinforcement or rewards. The children simply copied the adult’s behaviour. They received no encouragement or reward. Bandura’s theories have an influence on current practice today in the form of positive role modelling. Recognition that child carers have a responsibility to demonstrate positive role modelling, as children will often imitate their behaviour. If aggressive behaviour or frustration is exhibited by the adult it is likely to be imitated by the child. Learning  is acquired by observation and imitation. Operant conditioning B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) An American psychologist. Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning can be described as a process that attempts to modify a behaviour through the use of positive and negative reinforcement. The child will make the association between a particular behaviour and a consequence. The fundamental idea behind this is that behaviours that are reinforced will tend to continue while behaviours that are punished will eventually stop. Positive reinforcement is when a desired behaviour is rewarded positively: for example, when a child completes a set task they would receive a positive response e.g. a sticker, positive praise or maybe free play. Negative reinforcement is more about focussing on the negative behaviours that are to be changed and instilling a sanction or removal of a positive event: for example, a child that is continually exhibiting a negative behaviour, such as disobeying house rules will be told that if this behaviour continues they will lose their gaming machine or similar sanction. In summary if we reward good behaviour we expect that behaviour to continue and if we punish negative behaviour we hope that behaviour will cease. Importantly adults using this theory must make sure that they consistently carry out what they have intended otherwise the system becomes completely ineffective. Skinner’s theories are used widely in childcare today, we actively praise children for positive behaviours and for performing actions correctly; additionally we use the ‘time out’ method for negative behaviour. Behaviourist John B Watson (1878-1958) An American psychologist. Watson believed all learning was gradual and continuous. Development is a sequence of specific conditional behaviours with the main emphasis on the environment not heredity. Observable behaviours were considered to be more important rather that internal events such as thinking because external/observable behaviours could be witnessed and monitored. Watson believed that everyone is born as a ‘blank canvas’ and with the same abilities as each other and that they can be taught and trained to become anything they wish to be. Individuals can be trained to behave in a certain  way. He believed all behaviour is a result of the environment and a response. His work was heavily influenced by physiologist Ivan Pavlov who is famous for his theory based on dogs. Pavlov learned that dogs would begin to salivate in response to seeing a care giver in anticipation of food, rather than just in the response of receiving food. He named this response the ‘Classical Conditioning Theory’. It was Watson’s and Pavlov’s ideas which impacted on that of Skinner’s. We use Watson’s theories today by rewarding good behaviour and punishing negative behaviour. Good behaviour in our classrooms today is often rewarded with stickers, privileges or other positive motivators. To discourage negative behaviours often a stepped warning system is used. A system of planned ignoring is beneficial and often used for dealing with attention seeking behaviour. Social pedagogy Social Pedagogy is a framework that influences current practice by creating a holistic way of working with children by seeking to bring together theories and concepts from education, psychology and sociology. It aims to treat the child as a whole, making sure all their needs are met especially those children with additional needs.

Eye Injury Risk from Water Stream Impact Essay

Ocular injuries caused by solid projectiles have been described in the literature (Duma, 2005; Kennedy, 2006; Kennedy, 2007). However, the impact of a high-velocity water stream on the globe has not been previously quantified. Such pressurized water jets can be found in children’s water toys, squirt guns, and interactive water fountains. As the velocity of these water streams increases, product capabilities, and therefore popularity, likewise increase. In addition to those on the market, water gun enthusiasts custom build powerful guns in order to maximize flow rate, often in excess of 55 ft/s. Interactive water fountains (also called wet decks, splash pads, spray pads, or spray parks) are found in public areas and water parks throughout the country. The attractions feature synchronized jets of water, typically directed vertically from nozzles in the ground. While playing, it is possible for a child to look into the nozzle in anticipation of the next spurt of water which could in theory cause an eye injury. However, the increasing popularity of these fountains has not been matched by appropriate regulation. The CDC recommends that health departments update pool codes to include interactive water features that do not have standing water (Prevention, 2007) due to a series of outbreaks of gastroenteritis (Minshew, 2000). The lack of research and injury assessment has delayed the process, as most states have not established codes. Current available legislation is listed in Table 1. The primary focus of concern in current legislation is centered on the filtration system and prevention of spread of bacterial infection. This concern has taken attention away from the potential for mechanical injury due to a high-velocity water jet directed toward a child’s eyes, ear, or mouth. This study consisted of five parts: Part I includes previous research and case studies that have been reviewed to begin to understand the need for water eye injury research and the previous efforts made to investigate this injury mechanism. In Part II, a range of objects and devices were analyzed to determine water characteristics and the associated injuries. A summary table of the results was produced. In Part III, projectile impact tests were performed with three different projectiles and a range of velocities to measure normalized energy and internal pressure within the eye. For Part IV, water jet impacts were performed with three nozzle diameters and a range of water velocities to measure internal eye pressure to assess injury. In Part V, data from Part III were used to determine a correlation between normalized energy and internal eye pressure to then calculate normalized energy for the measured internal eye pressure during the water jet impacts (Part IV). Previously developed injury risk curves for corneal abrasion, hyphema, lens dislocation, retinal damage and globe rupture were applied to the calculated normalized energy to determine injury risk for the water jet impacts. Nozzle type, size, and maximum velocity are a critical part of an interactive water fountain’s performance, but until relationships between these factors and injury have been established, it is hard to place numerical guidelines on their design. This report aims to quantify the incidence and mechanics of water-induced eye injuries and benchmark the fluid mechanics of current water systems and toys. Documented cases of high-velocity water-induced eye injuries confirm the potential danger of these water blasts (Table 2). Many of the reported incidents occurred in the workplace and involve pressure washers, agricultural irrigation sprinklers, or fire hoses. While studies of water-induced eye injuries on humans have not been conducted, animal studies have linked high-velocity water jets to eye damage. Fish (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) exposed to submerged water jets at velocities ranging from 40 to 65 ft/s were examined for injury. Nearly half of all fish suffered eye injuries (bulged, hemorrhaged, or missing) at velocities of 55 ft/s and above (Deng, 2005). In a similar study, fish were released at velocities from 0 to 70 ft/s and the authors found velocity to be positively correlated to severity of injury (Nietzel, 2000). Minor severity was noted when there was a visible injury that had no threat to life and major severity was noted when the injury was a threat to life and persisted throughout time.

Louisa May Alcott - Author of Little Women

Louisa May Alcott - Author of Little Women Louisa May Alcott is known for writing  Little Women  and other childrens stories,  connections to other Transcendentalist thinkers and writers.   She was briefly a  tutor of Ellen Emerson, daughter of Ralph Waldo Emerson, nurse, and was a Civil War nurse.   She lived from November 29, 1832 to March 6, 1888. Early Life Louisa May Alcott was born in Germantown, Pennsylvania, but the family quickly moved to Massachusetts, a location with which Alcott and her father are usually associated. As was common at the time, she had little formal education, taught mainly by her father using his unconventional ideas about education. She read from the library of neighbor Ralph Waldo Emerson and learned botany from Henry David Thoreau. She associated with Nathaniel Hawthorne, Margaret Fuller, Elizabeth Peabody, Theodore Parker, Julia Ward Howe, Lydia Maria Child. The familys experience when her father founded a utopian community, Fruitlands, is satirized in Louisa May Alcotts later story, Transcendental Wild Oats. The descriptions of a flighty father and down-to-earth mother probably reflect well the family life of Louisa May Alcotts childhood. She early realized that her fathers flighty educational and philosophical ventures could not adequately support the family, and she sought ways to provide financial stability. She wrote short stories for magazines and published a collection of fables shed originally written as tutor for Ellen Emerson, Ralph Waldo Emersons daughter. Civil War During the Civil War, Louisa May Alcott tried her hand at nursing, going to Washington, DC, to work with Dorothea Dix and the U.S. Sanitary Commission. She wrote in her journal, I want new experiences, and am sure to get em if I go. She became ill with typhoid fever and was affected for the rest of her life with mercury poisoning, the result of the treatment for that illness. When she returned to Massachusetts, she published a memoir of her time as a nurse, Hospital Sketches, which was a commercial success. Becoming a Writer She published her first novel, Moods, in 1864, traveled to Europe in 1865, and in 1867 began editing a childrens magazine. In 1868, Louisa May Alcott wrote a book about four sisters, published in September as Little Women, based on an idealized version of her own family. The book was successful quickly, and Louisa followed it a few months later with a sequel, Good Wives, published as Little Women or, Meg, Jo, Beth and Amy, Part Second. The naturalism of the characterizations and the non-traditional marriage of Jo were unusual and reflected the Alcott and May families interest in Transcendentalism and social reform, including womens rights. Louisa May Alcotts other books never matched the lasting popularity of Little Women. Her Little Men not only continues the story of Jo and her husband, but also reflects the educational ideas of her father, which he was never able to communicate effectively in writing. Illness Louisa May Alcott nursed her mother through her final illness, while continuing to write short stories and some books. Louisas income financed the move from the Orchard House to the Thoreau house, more central in Concord. Her sister May died of complications of childbirth, and assigned guardianship of her child to Louisa. She also adopted her nephew John Sewell Pratt, who changed his name to Alcott. Louisa May Alcott had been ill since her Civil War nursing work, but she became worse. She hired assistants to care for her niece, and moved to Boston to be near her doctors. She wrote Jos Boys which neatly detailed the fates of her characters from her most popular fiction series. She also included the strongest feminist sentiments in this final book. By this time, Louisa had retired to a rest home. Visiting her fathers deathbed on March 4, she returned to die in her sleep on March 6. A joint funeral was held, and they were both buried in the family cemetery plot. While she is best known for her writings, and is sometimes a source of quotations, Louisa May Alcott was also a supporter of reform movements including antislavery, temperance, womens education, and womens suffrage. Also known as:  L. M. Alcott, Louisa M. Alcott, A. M. Barnard, Flora Fairchild, Flora Fairfield Family: Father: Amos Bronson Alcott, Transcendentalist, philosopher and educational experimenter, founder of Fruitlands, a utopian community which failedMother: Abigail May, relative of abolitionist Samuel MayLouisa was the second of four daughtersLouisa May Alcott never married. She was a guardian for her sisters daughter and adopted a nephew.

Comparison Of Langston Hues Peices Essays - Guggenheim Fellows

Comparison Of Langston Hues Peices Essays - Guggenheim Fellows Comparison Of Langston Hues Peices The short story Thank You, Maam and the poem Mother to Son, both by Langston Hughes are similar yet differ in many ways. In the following paragraphs I will explain the similarities and the differences. Besides being written by the same author the two literary works are a like in the sense that they are both advice to young people. An example from Mother to Son is So boy dont you turn back, dont set you down those stairs cause you find its kinder harder, dont you fall now. An example from Thank you Maam is when Mrs. Jones says I were young once and I wanted things I couldnt get, I have done things, too, which I would not tell you sonneither God, if he didnt already know. Both works are sharing there experiencing with younger people to try to help them to learn from the mistakes they have made in their life. They give the young people their advice showing kindness. Also both stories are written with the same kind of language. An example of this is words like M am, No m, and Yes m from Thank You, M am and words like I se a-climbin , and aint from Mother to Son. The ways these works are different is the format of the pieces. Mother To Son is a poem and Thank You M am is a short story. The literary elements in Thank You M am are characterization, direct characterization and indirect characterization. In Mother To Son uses diction, connotations, denotations, entrails and his freedom of language, which is called his poetic license. Mother to Son also has a deeper meaning, the writer chose to write this poem like a metaphor, referring his life to a staircase. Thank You M am is clear about its meaning and uses dialog to explain the theme and meaning of the work. In conclusion I found it clear to see that the literary works were alike in the sense that they were both giving out a positive message but different in the way the message is told. All and all I found both of these stories alike in the sense that they were very enjoyable to read and learn from! Bibliography none

Trabajo en Estados Unidos - Opciones legales

Trabajo en Estados Unidos - Opciones legales El trabajo en Estados Unidos puede ser desempeà ±ado legalmente no sà ³lo por los ciudadanos,sino tambià ©n por los extranjeros que son residentes permanentes legales. Y por los que son titulares de visas temporales de trabajo o de permisos de trabajo. Existen varias opciones para conseguir tanto la codiciada tarjeta de residencia permanente como las visas y los permisos de trabajo. Debe tomarse en cuenta que a la hora de encontrar patrocinador de visa de trabajo, en los estados con menor tasa de desempleo puede ser ms fcil. Estas son todas las opciones migratorias que permiten trabajar legalmente en USA: Ciudadanos estadounidenses Los ciudadanos pueden desempeà ±arse laboralmente en cualquier trabajo para el que reà ºnan las calificaciones necesarias. La ciudadanà ­a la disfrutan todas las personas nacidas en Estados Unidos y las naturalizadas tras cinco aà ±os como residentes permanentes legales, o tres para el caso de los cà ³nyuges de estadounidenses. Residentes permanentes legales Son los titulares de una green card o tarjeta de residencia. Los residentes pueden vivir y trabajar en Estados Unidos de por vida, siempre que conserven la residencia fà ­sica en el paà ­s. En determinados casos, como condena por determinados delitos, la residencia puede perderse y el extranjero ser deportado. No todos los trabajos estn abiertos para los residentes permanentes. Por ejemplo, es muy comà ºn que en trabajos relacionados con la seguridad o defensa de Estados Unidos se exija un determinado pase de seguridad (security clearance) que sà ³lo se concede a ciudadanos. Adems, en cualquiera de las cuatro ramas del Ejà ©rcito (Tierra, Mar, Aire y Marines) hay determinadas posiciones para los que estn excluidos todos los extranjeros.Y por supuesto que el requisito de la ciudadanà ­a tambià ©n puede ser requerido por las empresas privadas. Hay varios caminos para obtener una green card. Desde peticiones de la tarjeta para extranjeros realizadas por sus familiares estadounidenses o residentes permanentes a solicitudes por parte de empresas, pasando por una loterà ­a anual de 50,000 residencias. Una vez que se tiene la green card se puede buscar trabajo legalmente a travà ©s de familiares, amigos o recurriendo a bases de datos o empresas especialista en buscar empleo. Visas de trabajo temporal para extranjeros cualificados A pesar de la crisis econà ³mica, hay trabajo en Estados Unidos para los profesionales con ciertas cualificaciones. Esta categorà ­a comprende a un nà ºmero amplio de visas que permiten a sus titulares trabajar por un tiempo determinado en EEUU. Destacan, entre otras, la H-1B para profesionales o modelos, aunque en los à ºltimos aà ±os hay tantas solicitudes que, salvo excepciones para algunas situaciones, es preciso realizar una  loterà ­a de visas H-1B   Adems, existe la L, para transferencias de empleados de una multinacional, la G-4 para trabajadores de organizaciones internacionales con oficinas en Estados Unidos, o la O para personas con habilidades especiales. Cada tipo de visa tiene su propia normativa. Como consecuencia, puede haber grandes diferencias entre una y otra en cuestiones como duracià ³n, posibilidad de aplicar o no para una tarjeta de residencia, permiso de empleo o no para los cà ³nyuges de los titulares principales de las visas o, incluso, la posibilidad de cambiar de empresa. Es muy importante que los extranjeros que disfrutan de visas conozcan las condiciones de las mismas. Visas de trabajo en Estados Unido para extranjeros sin calificaciones La visa H-2B  permite la contratacià ³n de extranjeros para desempeà ±ar labores temporales no agrà ­colas para los que no hay suficientes estadounidenses o residentes permanentes dispuestos a realizarlas. Estas visas se conceden generalmente por un aà ±o, ampliable hasta un mximo de tres y se utilizan para cubrir puestos de trabajo de naturaleza temporal en sectores como los parques de atracciones, resorts de montaà ±a, estaciones de ski o playas. El proceso para contratar a extranjeros con una visa H-2B debe iniciarlo la empresa empleadora estadounidense mediante el relleno de la planilla  I-129. Sà ³lo los ciudadanos de determinados paà ­ses pueden beneficiarse de este tipo de visas. El listado es publicado por el Departamento de Seguridad Interna (DHS, por sus siglas en inglà ©s) y, en la actualidad, comprende los siguientes paà ­ses hispanohablantes: Argentina, Chile, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Espaà ±a, Guatemala, Honduras, Mà ©xico, Nicaragua, Perà º, Repà ºblica Dominicana y Uruguay. Existe un là ­mite de visas H-2B que se pueden conceder por aà ±o fiscal, habià ©ndose establecido en 66,000, pudià ©ndose conceder 33,000 en los seis primeros meses e igual nà ºmero en los seis à ºltimos. Por otro lado, las visas C1/D permiten ingresar a EE.UU. para embarcar como trabajar en un crucero, para lo que frecuentemente se recurre a agencias especializadas en este tipo de empleo. Los salarios son competitivos y, como regla general, superiores al salario mà ­nimo en EE.UU. Visas de trabajo en Estados Unidos en labores agrà ­colas Las visas H-2A se conceden a extranjeros para trabajar en puestos de trabajo relacionados con el campo y se conceden por un aà ±o, que se puede extender hasta tres. Adems, el trabajador que disfrute de esta visa puede viajar a Estados Unidos acompaà ±ado por su cà ³nyuge e hijos. En este visado, que se conoce como el programa de trabajadores huà ©sped agrà ­colas, la empresa o el empleador americano que solicita a un trabajador extranjero debern garantizar que à ©ste recibe el mismo salario y disfruta de las mismas condiciones laborales que los trabajadores estadounidenses que realicen labores similares. Adems, debern proveerle con alojamiento gratuito, comidas a bajo precio, si esa es la costumbre en el lugar, y boleto pagado de ida y vuelta desde su paà ­s de origen. Al igual que ocurre con las visas H-2B, sà ³lo los ciudadanos de determinados paà ­ses pueden recibir estas visas. En la actualidad comprende a los siguientes paà ­ses: Argentina, Chile, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador,Espaà ±a, Guatemala, Honduras, Mà ©xico, Nicaragua, Perà º, Repà ºblica Dominicana y Uruguay. Y a diferencia de lo que aplica a la H-2B, en las visas temporales de naturaleza agrà ­cola no existe un cupo mximo anual de visados que se pueden conceder. Los inmigrantes con visa H-2A y H-2B deben ser pagados  el salario mà ­nimo o ms. Para los que buscan trabajo, este es un listado de ms de 60 reclutadores mexicanos de trabajadores temporeros para trabajar en Estados Unidos con visas H-2A y H-2B. Estudiantes internacionales En determinadas condiciones, los estudiantes internacionales podrn obtener un permiso de trabajo que ser emitido por el USCIS. Debern confirmar que pueden trabajar con el oficial de la escuela o universidad a cargo de los estudiantes internacionales (DSO, por sus siglas en inglà ©s). Conviene subrayar que cualquier actividad laboral por la que se cobre dinero que se realice sin tener un permiso de trabajo supone una violacià ³n de la visa. Visitantes de intercambio Comprende una gran variedad de posibilidades bajo el amparo de las visas J, conocidas como de intercambio. Por ejemplo, au pairs, profesores y maestros, mà ©dicos, consejeros de campamentos de verano, prcticas al acabar los estudios e, incluso, estudiantes de secundaria. Las condiciones de trabajo estn fijadas en la visa. Permiso de trabajo en Estados Unidos Las personas que se encuentran, entre otras, en situacià ³n de asilo, solicitantes de asilo, acogidos a un Programa de Proteccià ³n Temporal (TPS, por sus siglas en inglà ©s), refugiados, o sean personas procesando un ajuste de estatus para conseguir una green card pueden solicitarle al USCIS un Permiso de Autorizacià ³n de Trabajo (EAD, por sus siglas en inglà ©s). Tambià ©n pueden aplicar, en determinadas circunstancias, las và ­ctimas de violencia domà ©stica. Este es un listado completo de quià ©nes pueden solicitar un permiso de trabajo. Visas TN para mexicanos y canadienses Bajo el amparo del Tratado de Libre Comercio de Norteamà ©rica (NAFTA), mexicanos y canadienses pueden disfrutar de visas para trabajar en Estados Unidos que se otorgan por un periodo inicial de hasta tres aà ±os. Un listado seà ±ala publicado en la pgina oficial de NAFTA seà ±ala 60 profesiones que permiten aplicar. Puede acompaà ±ar al titular de la visa su cà ³nyuge e hijos solteros menores de 21 aà ±os, quienes no podrn trabajar en Estados Unidos. Trabajo al crear empleo con visa de inversià ³n Son los casos de la E-1 para negocios de import/export y la E-2 para los dems casos. las personas interesadas en esta visa deben comenzar a informarse sobre de quà © paà ­ses hay que tener un pasaporte para poder solicitarla y sobre cunto dinero hay que invertir y cà ³mo entender este requisito. Empresas e instituciones patrocinadoras Como en la mayorà ­a de los casos de visas o green card por trabajo se necesita una empresa que patrocine, es de interà ©s conocer las 100 que patrocinan  ms visas H-1B  y las 100 que patrocinan ms green cards.   A tener en cuenta cuando la visa tarda mucho Los trmites con Inmigracià ³n pueden demorarse mucho ms de lo esperado. Pero cuando se excede el tiempo habitual para un procedimiento en concreto cabe la posibilidad de demandar mediante un writ of mandamus (consultar con un abogado). Otras opciones diferentes a Estados Unidos Es cierto que Estados Unidos es un paà ­s que atrae a millones de migrantes permanentes y temporales, pero no es el à ºnico. Canad tambià ©n es un destino favorito de migrantes. Este es un listado de ms de 300 profesiones que pueden acceder a un sistema exprà ©s para emigrar.   Finalmente, este es un listado de 20 paà ­ses en los que es posible comprar el pasaporte o la tarjeta de residencia a cambio de una cantidad de dinero.   Este es un artà ­culo informativo. No es asesorà ­a legal.

US Airways Group - Going Global Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

US Airways Group - Going Global - Essay Example US Airways cannot continue to depend solely on the US marketplace to achieve growth. Since the airline industry in an oligopoly the few firms that participate in this marketplace are very powerful. Currently the US airline industry is dominated by three players who combined control nearly 42% of the marketplace (Misra, 2010). The top three US airlines are Delta, American, and Southwest Airline. US Airways stands fourth in market share in the US marketplace. The company has reached at stage in its product life cycle that requires the firm to seek global expansion in order to achieve sales growth and optimize shareholder’s wealth. Once US Airways makes the decision to seek international expansion the managerial team of the company needs to develop a strategic plan to achieve the objective. The firm has to evaluate the corporation from the top down to determine whether the company is ready to penetrate other marketplaces. As an airline company the firm has to determine if the company has the proper infrastructure in place to achieve their goals. The most important machinery in the industry is the airplanes. The firm has to determine if it has enough airplanes available to s tart offering new routes outside the United States.

Labor Party in America Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Labor Party in America - Case Study Example Three significant factors can be defined in order to explain the issue: a) repression level; b) religion; c) more strict communist position. It is a fact that in the United States labor movement has more severe communist principles. The level of repression in the United States is higher and the issues connected with religion are recognized as very important because in America religion plays a very important role for everybody choosing what party to adhere to. A great number of American citizens refused from being members of trade unions, because it is very important for many of them to be a Democrat or a Republican. The active popularization of human rights also explains why Americans are inclined to accept socialist principles and leave trade unions. Trottier states: In the 1990s, there was the beginning of a labor party in the US, but the vast majority of the unions in this country refused to break with the Democrats and Republicans and join this party. Even a few of the unions who supported the Labor Party also continued their support of some Democrats. The Labor Party could have played an educational role in developing a future mass labor party. It would have needed to organize rallies, mass meetings and run at least some candidates in a few elections. The fact that it did not do this led many people to drop out as they could not see it developing further (Trottier, 2009). Does America need labor party' A great number of American employees, who were on the side of Democrats, when the elections were held, now are not satisfied with their activity and with the absence of any positive changes. Now many people are inclined to build a labor party. They see it including trade unions with the rights to vote (Yates, 1998). The party will have local representations and special representation for young people who study or can't find job. The supporters are sure that there will be no lack of members because in the current political situation there are many people who can't find job or are afraid to be fired. Also there is a great number of Americans who want to stop wars abroad and bring American troops back home. Moreover, there are many former unions' members. Trottier states: We see the struggle to change the union leadership's policies of supporting the big business political parties as part of a struggle for more democratic unions that will the fight against give-backs to the boss and use more militant tactics to win strike battles. The Workers International League works with any and all who struggle for these changes in the unions. We also bring the issue of the need for a mass labor party to other campaigns such as the immigrants' rights and anti-war movements (Trottier, 2009). Conclusion The conclusion can be made that there are no relevant reasons or factors in the United States, which would not allow to have labor party. In the current political situation, when employment rates are getting higher, there is a question asked by many American citizens: does America need labor party founded on trade unions' Dissatisfied with the current polit

What Are the Economic Reasons for the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade and Essay

What Are the Economic Reasons for the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade and Its Abolition - Essay Example The event was supported by the change in moral, religious and humanitarian reasons observed among the citizens. The triangle of trade consisted of three journeys: the outward passage from Europe to Africa with the manufactured goods, the middle passage from Africa to the Americas or the Caribbean’s which carried African captives and commodities and lastly, the homeward passage which carried goods back to Europe (National Maritime Museum). The slave trade made the bulk of the labor force of the New World. They comprise of the bulk of workers in the sugar plantation which is the most labor intensive crop, while some also work in harvesting coffee, cotton and tobacco and some also helped in mining (Wikimedia Foundations Inc.). The cheap labor has been Europe’s power, shipping around 6000-8000 African slaves every year (National Musuems Liverpool). The trafficiking of Africans has been the business of the rich and powerful where both the monarchy and the church has benefitted much so that it comprised 80% of the total British trade, helping in the development of banking and insurance, ship building and several manufacturing industries (Adi). Eric Williams, the showed that the profit from the trafficking has financed England’s industrialization process, that it has become a very essential element to the Industrial Revolution and has brought much wealth to Europe (Wikimedia Foundations Inc.). There has been much speculation as to the abolition of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade. Humanitarian reasons were cited such as of morality and religion. The humanitarian reason is largely a work of William Wilberforce, who was a British politican and philantrophist who led the movement to abolish slave trade, however, the economic reasons for the abolition cannot be discarded. Many believe that the slave trade was abolished mainly for economic reasons such as argued by Eric Williams. The simple reason was slavery as a form of labor has become unviable

World Politics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 4

World Politics - Essay Example The developing nations have to adopt policies that conform to the standards required by superpowers. However, evidence shows that terrorism is one of the latest factors to have influenced the formulation of foreign policies. Terrorism doesn’t make a distinction between a superpower and a developing nation. For this reason, nations have come together to fight the common enemy. Although it has been the hardest task, most nations have proved to be resilient in the fight and have vowed to bring to justice, those suspected to be terrorists and their sympathizers. Nation’s foreign policies are major components in world politics (Duncan, Jancar-Webster & Switky, 2009). A nation’s foreign policy determines how it relates with other nations (Constitutional Rights Foundation, 2014). Most foreign policies consist of a number of strategies chosen by a nation with regard to its interests. These policies help in the maintenance of relations with other nations and the achievement of a nation’s goals. The interaction is moderated in order to gain maximum benefits on international cooperation. The governments incorporate high level decision bodies to help them make the soundest decisions. According to Duncan, Jancar-Webster and Switky, â€Å"foreign policy is put into play by the world’s states, but other players, such as Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs) and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)†¦.may also make decisions that affect the foreign policy of states† (2009, p. 131). Foreign policies were introduce d during the world wars. Most nations took the step in order to improve the relations between them and prevent potential wars. There are various factors that influence the foreign relations of a nation; these factors determine how a nation will treat the other and ensure that it conducts itself in such a way that it remains relevant to other nations as well as its citizens. Terrorism: The

Environmental audit Tesco Plc Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Environmental audit Tesco Plc - Coursework Example The company chosen for study is Tesco Plc which is the biggest multinational general merchandise and grocery retailer in United Kingdom. The company operates in over 2,315 stores globally with over 1,875 stores in UK. It also has significant presence in North America, Asia and Europe. The total revenue of the company for the year ending 2013 was over  £ 64.8 billion while net income after taxes was over  £ 120 million. Tesco PLC was founded by Jack Cohen in 1919 as a group of market stalls. The company is listed on London Stock Exchange and has over 6350 stores globally. It is also a constituent of FTSE 100 Index. The company is headquartered in Chestnut, Hertfordshire of England. The company has huge geographical diversification into areas like clothing, furniture, electronics, financial services, retailing of books, internet services, software, music downloads, DVD rental, and so on. Tesco Stores Ltd is a subsidiary of Tesco PLC in United Kingdom. ... 64.8 billion while net income after taxes was over ? 120 million. Tesco PLC was founded by Jack Cohen in 1919 as a group of market stalls. The company is listed on London Stock Exchange and has over 6350 stores globally. It is also a constituent of FTSE 100 Index. The company is headquartered in Chestnut, Hertfordshire of England (TESCO, 2013, pp.3-16). The company has huge geographical diversification into areas like clothing, furniture, electronics, financial services, retailing of books, internet services, software, music downloads, DVD rental, and so on. Tesco Stores Ltd is a subsidiary of Tesco PLC in United Kingdom. The company offers a wide range of personal finance services both offline and online. The relative position of Tesco’s market share with respect to other foremost players in the market is depicted as follows: (Source: t1ps.com, 2012) External Business Environment Analysis Global recession during 2007 to 2009 has substantial impact on the overall retail indust ry across the world. During the year 2012, retail growth was only 1.2% and it was the third lowest in the history retail industry of UK in last 40 years. Thus, the macro-economy significantly influences organizations’ strategy by influencing the surroundings of the industry. The external environment determines the outlook of industry and hence it is very important to analyze the external environment in order to formulate appropriate strategy for the organization (TESCO, 2013, pp.8-9). PESTEL Analysis The macro-economic environment is evaluated using the PESTEL analysis that identifies key drivers that influence the company’s strategic decisions. The objective of this analysis is to reveal the impact of various external factors upon a business as well as the industry

World Politics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 4

World Politics - Essay Example The developing nations have to adopt policies that conform to the standards required by superpowers. However, evidence shows that terrorism is one of the latest factors to have influenced the formulation of foreign policies. Terrorism doesn’t make a distinction between a superpower and a developing nation. For this reason, nations have come together to fight the common enemy. Although it has been the hardest task, most nations have proved to be resilient in the fight and have vowed to bring to justice, those suspected to be terrorists and their sympathizers. Nation’s foreign policies are major components in world politics (Duncan, Jancar-Webster & Switky, 2009). A nation’s foreign policy determines how it relates with other nations (Constitutional Rights Foundation, 2014). Most foreign policies consist of a number of strategies chosen by a nation with regard to its interests. These policies help in the maintenance of relations with other nations and the achievement of a nation’s goals. The interaction is moderated in order to gain maximum benefits on international cooperation. The governments incorporate high level decision bodies to help them make the soundest decisions. According to Duncan, Jancar-Webster and Switky, â€Å"foreign policy is put into play by the world’s states, but other players, such as Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs) and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)†¦.may also make decisions that affect the foreign policy of states† (2009, p. 131). Foreign policies were introduce d during the world wars. Most nations took the step in order to improve the relations between them and prevent potential wars. There are various factors that influence the foreign relations of a nation; these factors determine how a nation will treat the other and ensure that it conducts itself in such a way that it remains relevant to other nations as well as its citizens. Terrorism: The

Urban design studentship Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Urban design studentship - Essay Example Studying design in the context of urban locations is essential to practical training because of the importance of being able to see real people within the designed spaces. The importance of the understanding the urban spaces as a means of understanding the people that live there is emphasized by the development of urban archaeology, a study â€Å"concerned with the reconstruction of the natural and human environment within which and as part of which human actions take place† (Chapter 8, 2008). This is because the whole purpose of urban design is to create a pleasing â€Å"visual effect of building masses, connections with people and places, creation of spaces for movements, urban amenities and public realm, and †¦ improving the overall townscape† (Government, 2006). In working out the management of a specific place, there are invariably a number of people involved in the process and, when becoming enveloped within the design process, it is often too easy to forget to consider the actual use of the spaces being designed, the history involved and the personal connections that have been made with the space. â€Å"There is a core group whose understanding of the relationship between urban structure, spaces and buildings, and ability to develop three-dimensional concepts is central† (Olszewski & Pudlowski, 2001). This understanding can only be acquired by experience. Practical experience of designed spaces enables the urban designer to begin understanding the various ways in which people have used a particular location in ways that are difficult to simulate using tools such as augmented reality. â€Å"Sensations triggered by ‘grasping’ and ‘moving’ aid the designers’ cognitive process and their awareness of ‘being inside’† (Seichter & Schnabel, 2005), but the actual physical space remains difficult to understand in the virtual environment. However, the difficulty remains how to experience the nature of the people, culture and locations

Victoria Climbies Death and Trial Essay Example for Free

Victoria Climbies Death and Trial Essay Victoria Climbies life was short and tragic. Her murder prompted the largest review of child protection arrangements in the UK. Find out more about the story. The Climbie trial Carl Manning and Marie Therese Kouao are charged with the murder of Victoria Climbie. During police interviews both claim that Victoria was possessed. November 2000: The trial opens with the prosecution making it clear that the blame lay not only with Kouao and Manning in the dock but child protection authorities who had been blindingly incompetent. Manning denies murder but pleads guilty to child cruelty and manslaughter. Kouao denies all charges. 12 January 2001: Almost a year after Victoria Climbies death, Manning and Kouao are found guilty of her murder. Sentencing both of them to life imprisonment, Judge Richard Hawkins says: What Anna endured was truly unimaginable. She died at both your hands, a lonely drawn out death. A police diagram of injuries on Victorias body Regular contact Reporting to a workshop into the inquiry in London into Victorias death Mr Davies was due to say: Crisis management is the day-to-day reality of staff working in social services and they are being stretched beyond the limit.†There is no doubt in my mind that these factors played a key part in the case of Victoria Climbie and I fear that unless urgent action is taken, it is only a matter of time before another child is murdered. Victoria was killed despite regular contact with four local authorities, two police child protection teams, two hospitals and social workers. A Unison survey on typical working conditions in social services teams backs Mr Owens assertions. Six out of 10 social workers said that even if all of the many vacant posts in the profession were filled there would still not be enough staff. An overwhelming majority of 96% said case loads were too heavy, while 88% said new staff were thrown in at the deep end. More than nine out of ten reported acute levels of stress and staff burn-out, while a similar number said they had to take work home. The survey was sent to the 120 Unison local authority branches with members in social services children and  families teams, and 53 replies were received. Kouao systematically abused Victoria It is only a matter of time before there is a repeat of the Victoria Climbie murder, public service union Unison has warned. It said a chronic shortage of skilled staff and funding has left social workers stretched beyond the limit†. The unions national officer for social workers, Owen Davies, is expected to call on the government and local authorities to face up to their responsibilities†. Eight-year-old Victoria died in February 2000 with 128 injuries on her body inflicted by her great-aunt Marie Therese Kouao and Kouaos boyfriend, Carl Manning.

Determining Avogadro’s Constant and Faraday’s Constant

Determining Avogadro’s Constant and Faraday’s Constant List of Apparatus Name of Apparatus Quantity Uncertainty Electronic Stopwatch 1  ±0.2s Ammeter 1  ±0.01A Wires with crocodile clips 1 D.C power source 1  ±0.01V 300cm3 Beaker 3 Copper strips 2 Sand paper 1 Graphite rod 2 pH probe/data-logger 1  ±0.2 Electronic weighing balance 1  ±0.001 DATA COLLECTION: The electrolytic cell used in this investigation is illustrated in Fig 1: Fig 1 Diagram of electrolytic cell used in investigation In this investigation, a current is passed through the solution with copper as the cathode and graphite as the anode. After a set amount of time, the circuit is disconnected and the mass of the cathode is measured. Following which, calculations are made so as to determine the Avogadro’s and Faraday’s constant. Qualitative Observations When the D.C power source was turned on, bubbles were formed at the Graphite anode. As the reaction progresses, powdery substance gets suspended in the solution and a black solid deposits can be found at the bottom of the beaker and there is a visible decomposition of the graphite electrode. As the reaction progress, a pink layer of copper forms on the copper strip. The copper strip is originally brown in colour while the graphite electrode is black in colour. Eventually, as the graphite electrode decomposes, the graphite molecules will turn the copper (II) sulphate solution from blue to black in colour. However, when the copper sulfate solution is filtered, it is noted that there is a decrease in the intensity of the blue colour in the filtrate after the electrolysis. The initial pH of the solution is 2.75, after the electrolysis is carried out, the pH decreases to 2.10. Data Collection Constant variables Time Interval/s( ±0.2) 300 Voltage/V 4V Current/A( ±0.01) 0.25 Cathode Trial 1 Initial mass/g ( ± 0.001 g) 1.315 Final mass/g ( ± 0.001 g) 1.279 Change in mass/g ( ± 0.002 g) 0.036 Chemical equation for reaction at the anode: 2H2O (l) à ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚  O2 (g) + 4H+ + 4e (aq) Chemical equation for reaction at the cathode: Cu2+ (aq) + 2e à ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚   Cu (s) Calculations for cathode Calculations Error Propagation Change in mass(Cu) = 0.036g Mols of (Cu) = =5.7 x 10-4 mol Number of mol of electrons- Using mol ratio Cu2+ (aq) + 2e à ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚   Cu (s) Number of mol of electrons =11.4 x 10-4 Charge flowing through circuit Number of electron charges in circut= Where is the elementary charge, the charge of one electron Number of electron charges in circuit = Number of mol of electrons Where L is the Avagandro’s constant Equating the number of mols of electrons obtained form the copper mass data and the number of mol of electrons from the current- Faraday’s constant = = 67000 C % ±ÃŽâ€ Mol of Cu = % ±ÃŽâ€ Mol of Cu = = 5.6 % % Uncertainty of number of mol of electrons = % uncertainty of Mass(Cu) =5.6% % uncertainty of number of mol of electrons =5.6% % ±ÃŽâ€ charge flowing in circuit = Percentage error Percentage error for Faraday’s Constant = = = 30% Percentage uncertainty of faraday’s constant =5.9% Percentage systematic error in Faradays’ constant =%error-%random error = 24.1% Percentage error for Avogadro’s Constant = = 30% Percentage uncertainty of Avogadro’s Constant =5.9% Percentage systematic error in Avogadro’s Constant =%error-%random error = 24.1% Conclusion In conclusion, the calculated value of Faraday’s constant is mol-1 and Avogadro’s constant is. As seen above, the percentage error for both Faraday’s constant and Avogadro’s constant are both 30% and after subtracting the error due to instrumental uncertainty, the % systematic error obtained is 24.1%. This shows that the experimental values calculated differ greatly from the literature values, indicating that there has been a significant amount of systematic error, which has caused the calculated value to be much different from the literature value. As percentage error of both Faraday’s constant and Avogadro’s constant are much larger than their respective percentage uncertainties, this indicates that the sources of systematic error are significant and cannot be ignored Evaluation Type of error Limitation Improvement Systematic Oxidation of copper occurs naturally when the copper strip is exposed to oxygen and when it is heated in the oven. Even when sand paper is used to scratch off the layer of copper oxide on the surface of the, it is difficult to completely rid of all the copper oxide. The formation of copper oxide will affect the reaction when electrolysis occurs and will affect the change in mass of the copper electrode, which is the dependent variable in this experiment. Even when the copper strip is immersed in the copper (II) sulphate solution, after a period of time, it will eventually start to form a layer of copper (II) oxide which will not be involved in the electrolysis reaction. This will reduce the amount of copper which will undergo reaction, causing it to reduce the eventual calculated Faraday’s and Avogadro’s constant. It is impossible to prevent the oxidation of copper from happening however, this systematic error can be minimised. Other than ensuring that the layer of copper oxide is scratched off by rubbing the copper strip excessively with sandpaper. The time for which the copper stays in the oven can be minimised or hair dryer can be used instead to blow the water off. Systematic When the graphite electrode starts to disintegrates as the reaction progresses, fragments of graphite will be dispersed throughout the entire solution. As copper (II) ions move towards the copper strip to plate it, some of the graphite fragments may end up attached to the copper strip as well and are unable to fall off as a layer of copper plates over the graphite fragments. This can be observed in the experiment when the copper strip is removed at the end of the experiment; black fragments of graphite are observed on the copper strip. The graphite fragments would easily reach the copper strip mainly because they were quite near each other. Hence, the graphite fragments could easily move towards the copper strips and attach to them. In order to minimise this from happening, the experiment should be conducting in a 500cm3 beaker, with the copper strip and the graphite electrode held further away from each other. Also, the graphite electrode should be positioned below the copper strip so that as the graphite electrode disintegrates, the graphite fragments will simply sink towards the bottom of the beaker, hence it will be less likely for the graphite fragments to accidentally coat onto the copper electrode Systematic Fluctuations in the current. Whenever the 2 electrodes were moved, the current of the circuit changes. Hence, whenever the copper electrode was moved in order to be weighed, the current would fluctuate, resulting in an inconsistent current throughout the experiment. If the current deviates from the stated 0.25, the resulting Faraday’s constant and Avogadro’s constant will be affected as well. An increase in current will result in an increase in the Faraday’s constant and Avogadro’s constant calculated while a decrease in current will result in a decrease in the Faraday’s constant and Avogadro’s constant calculated. In order to prevent fluctuations in the current as a result of the shifting electrodes, a retort stand can be used to hold the electrodes in place and prevent them from moving. This is much more reliable than just using hands to hold the electrode, resulting in a reduction in the fluctuation of the current A rheostat can be used and included in the circuit in order to adjust the amount of resistance of the circuit so that the desired current can be achieved. As current is inversely proportionate to resistance according to Ohm’s law, the resistance of the circuit can be adjusted in order to ensure a consistent current of 0.3 throughout the experiment. Systematic Also, another source of systematic error in this experiment would come from the fact that, the reading on the ammeter does not indicate the actual electric current flowing through the electrodes and the electrolyte as this value may decrease due to power losses in the wires. That is the electrical energy would be converted to heat. However the resistance of the wires in the circuit was assumed to be negligible in this experiment for simplicity. This would lead to systematic error as we would consistently overestimate the magnitude of the current flowing through the electrolyte. This error can be avoided if the values of the resistance of the wires as well as the internal resistance of the power source were known and included in the calculations made. Systematic The copper electrode may undergo a process called passivation[1] where the metal forms a protective layer on its surface to protect it from outer factors such as water or air to prevent corrosion. Such a protective layer will result in a high resistance which will lead to a voltage delay. This process may also occur on the graphite electrode. During the reaction, in the presence of passivation, the initial rate of the increase in mass of the copper electrode will be slowed down; ultimately affecting the total gain in mass by the copper electrode, affecting the Faraday’s constant and Avogadro’s constant calculated. This process of passivation can be removed by allowing the reaction to progress for 5 minutes to avoid a voltage delay. 5 minutes was chosen because too short a time will be insufficient to remove the protective layer on the electrode and too long a time will result in the disintegration of the graphite electrode even before the collection of data has begun. As mentioned above, if there is too much graphite fragments in the copper (II) sulphate solution, they may come into contact with the copper electrode and affect its final mass as copper ions plate over the graphite fragments on the copper electrode. Random Error Due to time constrains, only one set of data was collected. This will result in the fluctuation of the value of the Faraday’s and Avogadro’s constant. In order to reduce the error, perhaps more sets of data can be collected, so that a graph of metal deposited against time can be plotted and the gradient will enable the determination of the two constants. [1] Metal passivation-en.w,wikepedia.org/Passivation_(Chemistry). Accessed- 26/2/2014)

Leadership Essay -- Interpersonal Trustworthiness

The problem to be investigated is how the gap of trust between leaders and followers, weakens employees’ commitment, harms wealth creation, and produces augmented transaction expenses in organizations all over the world (Caldwell, Hayes & Long, 2010). Scandals involving large corporations in recent years have led to calls for more attention being given to ethical behavior within companies, particularly among company leaders. A research area of interest is how ethical behavior among leaders impacts the environment of an organization and the behavior of its staff, including employees’ organizational dedication (Organizational Behavior Application Guide, 2011). Trust between leaders and a follower is essential for a company to be successful. If the followers don’t feel as if they can trust the leaders then there will not be open lines of communication within the company and without those nothing can get accomplished. Leaders today’s face the challenge of earning the trust and commitment of staff members if they want to steer their companies to success in a highly aggressive international framework. Interpersonal trustworthiness is a personal evaluation of the probability that another person can be trusted to respect responsibilities intrinsic within an apparent social contract. The connection amid leader behavior and leader trustworthiness becomes a function of each person’s theoretical thinking as followers infer the understood and explicit elements of the social contract and the values that social contracts include. More and more, scholars have recognized the leader–follower connection as a chain of psychological contracts that increase to the level of a covenantal association (Caldwell, Hayes & Long, 2010). Leaders e... ...ched and that no matter what they do, right or wrong, someone always knows about it. Unethical behavior is something that is not easily overlooked or forgiven in the business arena and once a breach has been identified it takes a big toll on the company and reputation for a long time to come. Organizational behavior is always in the spotlight and should be carried out in the most ethical way possible. The opportunities and benefits that are lost in the end from leaders who are not ethical are tremendous to most companies. Many times the damage that is done is beyond repair and sometimes costs the company its existence in the end. It is very important that organizations make sure that they have good ethical policies in place to guide leaders in the decisions that they make since they not only affect them personally but affect the company as a whole.

Black People and James Baldwin Essay

A. The theme of Baldwin’s essay is equality. He establishes this theme in his essay with the juxtaposition of a poor white man and a black man. In this essay, Baldwin speaks of how â€Å"People are continually pointing out to me the wretchedness of white people in order to console me for the wretchedness of blacks. † He says that people say that being black is not that bad because there are white people in the same situation and that there is still hope for the black because of people like Frank Sinatra and Sammy Davis but it is still not something â€Å"to be regarded with complacency† because the situations of Frank Sinatra and Sammy Davis are just rare. Equality in America at the time was possible with â€Å"determined will,† but still very rare. Another way James Baldwin established the theme of equality in this essay was when he mentioned the projects, more specifically, Riverton. Baldwin establishes this theme of equality through mentioning Riverton for Riverton was a physical representation of the inequality of blacks and whites in America back then. Baldwin said, â€Å"The people in Harlem know they are living there because white people do not think they are good enough to live anywhere else. † There was going to be no equality if people were told to live in certain places because of their color. Baldwin also makes this theme extremely clear when he says, â€Å"Negroes want to be treated like men. † B. The tone of the essay, Fifth Avenue, Uptown: A letter from Harlem by James Baldwin and the tone of the poem, Theme for English B by Langston Hughes are similar. They are similar for both authors show that there is hope for equality through the tone of each text. In the poem, Theme for English B, Hughes says â€Å"You are white — / yet a part of me, as I am a part of you. / That’s American. † Hughes expresses that although he may be the only black person in his class, he is still American like the rest of the class and should be considered equal. The tone of the essay and poem is different from the poem Incident by Countee Collen. This poem’s tone is complete opposite from the other poem and essay for Collen uses more of a doubtful tone. This poem is more about just being sad and bothered that blacks and whites are not equal instead of being hopeful for the equality of the two races that is soon to come like the other poem and essay. C. The perspectives on race in these texts are different than in To Kill a Mockingbird for in To Kill a Mockingbird, Atticus believes that there is good and bad in everyone and that nobody should be hated or claimed as all bad. In the book, Scout asks Atticus if it is okay to hate Hitler but Atticus says that you shouldn’t hate anybody, no matter how bad they are because there is a good side to them. This shows that Atticus’ perspective on race is different from the authors of the poems and essay for the authors believe that the whites are bad people because blacks and whites are not equal. While Atticus is just like the authors for he wants equality between black and whites, his perspective is different for he believes that this equality will be brought once the good side comes out of the white people.

Operating System Differences

UNIX/Linux, Mac, Microsoft Windows Operating System Differences University of Phoenix Abstract This paper will elaborate on the major differences of the main Operating Systems (OS), which are UNIX/Linux, Mac ®, Microsoft ® Windows ®. The areas of discussion for this paper will be on Memory Management, Process Management, File Management, and Security for each operating system. Operating Systems (OS) for a computer is the main processing software program used to allow the computer processor to communicate with the software and hardware I/O devices.Computers as SUN, SUSE use UNIX/Linux operating system, Mac ® (Macintosh) computer uses Apple operating system, and Personal Computers (PC) and most business computers use Windows ® Microsoft ® operating systems. Operating System Computers as SUN, SUSE use UNIX/Linux operating system, Mac ® (Macintosh) computer uses Apple operating system, and Personal Computers (PC) and most business computers use Windows ® Microsoft ® ope rating systems. Each operating system is a multi-user system, multiprocessing, multitasking, and multithreading.An operating system capable of allowing multiple software processes to run at the same time is a multiprocessing and multitasking computer. Operating systems that allow different parts of a software program to run concurrently are considered multithreading. Computer processing uses memory for instructions and subroutines. The use of memory and managing is not simply just reading and writing to the computer. Each computer memory in the system uses it differently. Memory Management is a vital part of the processing of data. Virtual, cache, processor, data, direct access, random ccess, single in-line memory (SIMM) are types of memory used in a computer system. Processor speed is dependent on memory management, which allows the use and operation of the computers. Requirements for memory management are; Relocation, Protection, Sharing, Logical organization, and Physical organiz ation. Each of these mechanisms of memory assists the processing of data between the processor, I/O, Direct Access Memory (DMA) and software packages (Stallings, 2012). Memory management of UNIX/Linux, Mac, and Microsoft Windows Operating Systems (OS) are very similar and different in execution of memory management.The operating structure of UNIX computers is on an end terminal type configuration using their memory for servers, main-frame, engineering computers, workstations, and terminal to terminal use (Hass, 2012). Memories for these are large and fast operating. The UNIX computers use three different types of memory uses. The three named memories for a UNIX computer are Kernel, Cache, and virtual. Kernal memory is the OS’s own (semi) private memory (â€Å"Data Expedition†, 2012). This is always in Main memory. Cache memory’s main function is to hold the File System and other I/O operations.Virtual memory is an addressable memory space for processes to run on the computer. Virtual memory is divided into pages. Windows computers are also based on personal computer and server environments. Memory is large, fast, and used for software packages. Memory management in Microsoft Windows operating systems has evolved into a rich and sophisticated architecture. Capable of scaling from the tiny embedded platforms (where Windows executes from ROM) all the way up to the multi-terabyte NUMA configurations, taking full advantage of all capabilities of existing and future hardware designs (Solomon&Russinovich, 2010).Windows memory is more versatile in use than UNIX and Mac. The modern day personal home computer has Windows OS systems on them. Memory is used based on the operator use and software packages installed onto them. Memory management is different in each application for the different Operating Systems because of the way in which the memory is used. UNIX is more a business server use, needing more memory, and larger data transferring. Mac is a personal computer usage environment not needing as much memory for operating system, but for the software execution and data storage.Windows is also a personal computer environment with a server type environment growing in use. This memory management is both needing large sections of memory for data and operating systems transferring. Along with the processor speed, memory management is one of the most important parts of computer operation. The operating systems also rely on process management. Computers today have developed from running single program capability and running run one program at a time to having the ability to run multiple programs at the same time.They are also able to use multiple threads to provide more than one task to be run at the same time. Processes were created to help manage the execution of the programs. A process is defined as a unit of work in a modern time-sharing system during the execution of a program. There are five states that a process may be in n ew, running, waiting, ready, and terminated. Only one process can be running on a processor and the other processes are in a ready and waiting state. Operating systems use processes to execute the system code, which executes and runs the main programs to process and operate the computer.Operating systems may use the state of a process in different ways. A process control block represents a process in the operating system and contains the process state, program counter, CPU registers, CPU scheduling information, memory-management information, accounting information, and the I/O status information. To maximize the CPU processes need to be running at all times. As a process enters the system, they are placed in a job queue. A process scheduler is used to select the next available process for program execution. Process can be executed concurrently in most operating systems.Because all operating systems use processes to execute programs, This paper will compare and contrast some of the m ain systems like UNIX, Windows, and Mac. A UNIX operating system creates a process through a fork() system call and uses an identify processes by a unique identifier typically an integer number. The new process will contain a copy of the address of the original process known as the child. The child inherits the privileges and scheduling attributes from the parent. The parent could communicate easily to the child processes. The return code for the fork() call is zero for the child process and non- zero for the parent processes.To begin the execution of the process, the exec() after the fork() system call. The process memory space will be replaced with a new program. This allows two processes the ability to communicate and go their separate ways. A parent process will issue a wait() command whereas the child process is running so that it is completely removed from the active queue. Once the child process is terminated the parent will begin processing. Windows operating system is simil ar but offers some differences to process management than the UNIX operating system. The Win32 API uses the CreateProcess() function to create new processes.A specific program is loaded into the address space of a child process to create a new process. The CreateProcess() request expects at least 10 parameters. The first two parameters that pass through the command are START UPINFO and PROCESS_INFORMATION. The STARTUPINFO advises the new process what the window size and the appearance and handles to the I/O files. PROCESS_INFORMATION contains a handle and the identifiers for the new process and thread. A default parameter is used for the child process and the thread handles the specifying of no creation flags.The parent process waits for the child to process by using the waitfor singleobject() command and will be processed after the child has been terminated. The Mac operating system uses a process manager to schedule process. The number of processes are limited to the amount of mem ory available. The manager will maintain the information about the process. Process serial number identifies each process. The process serial number identifies a particular instance of an application. The foreground process has priority to access the CPU because the process is to allow only one foreground process at a time.A Multiple accesses process can be in the background. The process manager will automatically terminate a process when it exits its main routine or encounters a fatal error condition. The process manager will remove the process from the list of open processes and release memory occupied the application. Management of the processes is important to the operating system, but is also important on how files are managed. File management is primarily handled by the operating system software installed on a computer. Files are a sequence of logical records that are abstract and implemented by the OS.The user is primarily exposed to the file system portion of the operating s ystem making it even more important to have a user-friendly approach to the management of files. â€Å"A file system is a part of the operating system that determines how files are named, stored, and organized on a volume. A file system manages files and folders, and the information needed to locate and access these items by local and remote users (â€Å"What Is NTFS? † Local File Systems†,  2012). Systems for managing files provide users and applications with services like file access, directory maintenance, and access control or security.Windows NTFS, or New Technology File System, file system is intended to handle high-end applications like client/server applications, engineering, and scientific systems, and network applications for large companies and schools. One of the key differences in the Windows file system from other file systems is that it treats each file as two separate streams of bits within the same file. Key features offered by NTFS are recoverabilit y, security, larger files, and disks, journaling, compression, and encryption, and hard/symbolic links. Files are generally stored as clusters, which are one or more sectors side-by-side on the disk, or as a volume.NTFS does not recognize sectors, which are the smallest physical storage unit on the disk. Each volume consist’s of a partition boot sector, master file table, system files, and a file section. The master file table contains information about all of the files and directories on the volume. It is a table of 1,024-byte rows, or records with each row describing a file in the volume. A file can take up more allocated space, but tracked by pointers that point to additional clusters within the volume. Recoverability is not extremely robust but the NTFS does provide recoverability for directory/file structure if a crash occurs.Full recovery would require far more resources if it were implemented. Linux/UNIX supports a broad variety of file systems that map back into the u nderlying system it uses to support them. All UNIX file systems maintain a tree structure that runs under a root directory. Inodes are control structures that contain information pertaining to a file. An inode stores information like control information, size of the file, th etime the file was created, and any other information specified by the particular inode structure implemented. There are a various different file types utilized in the UNIX file system.Included are regular files, which encompass all software or data, and directories which contain files and other directories with at least a name and identification number for each file. Symbolic links are essentially an alias for another filename or directory, and IPC end points that communicate from one process to another process running on the same computer. Special files allow access to external devices, and physical devices. File access is controlled by a set of 12 protection bits comprised of nine bits of permissions, and thr ee bits that define special behavior.When files are accessed their inode is called into the main memory and stored. In UNIX all file allocation is dynamic, or on an ass needed basis. An indexed method is utilized to keep track of files and their locations on the Disk. Inodes contain both direct and indirect pointers to store index information for the file they are attached to. Macintosh systems utilize the hierarchical file system approach, but have updated the system to accommodate more modern utilization. HFS plus allows for smaller file sizes and more efficient utilization of larger storage spaces.It offers 32 bits of block allocation allowing for more files to be stored, and for the space on the hard disk to be utilized more efficiently. A Unicode file length of 255 will allow for more specific naming of files and easier differentiation between them. Dynamic inode length allows for larger branching in the file tree and less wasted space. The way files are stored is similar to th at of NTFS, but varies slightly in the way the volumes are broken down. The volume header is 1024 bytes in length and contains information about the contents.A catalog file contains information about the hierarchy of the files and folders within the volume, and an extents overflow file handles information pertaining to files with more than eight fork extensions. Attributes files are not fully explained but are a B-tree file that will be implemented in later named forks. Allocation files are bitmaps utilized to determine if there is a file allocated to an allocation block. Startup files are special files that hold information utilized when booting a system without a built in ROM. All operating systems have security issues and need good security protection of the operating system.Operating system security (OS security) is the process of ensuring OS integrity, confidentiality, and availability. OS security refers to specified steps or measures used to protect the OS from threats, virus es, worms, malware, or remote hacker intrusions. OS security encompasses all preventive-control techniques, which safeguard any computer assets capable of being stolen, edited, or deleted if OS security is compromised. (Stuart Ellis) As memory management, process management, and file management all are part of the operating systems vital elements, security is important, and even more important.Having unwarranted and unwanted access to files, data from outside source can be damaging and detrimental to the organization. The Unix/Linux systems have many security features that help in securing the system. UNIX has User Accounts protection, Password, file permissions, data verification, encryption, system firewalls, and application isolation. Each of the following security features has unique security for the Unix/Linux operating system (Sans. org). A widely used UNIX password security technique is the use of hashed passwords and a salt value (Operating systems, 2012).This type of passwo rd security is used on a UNIX-based system. When a password input into the system, it is combined with a fixed length word to complete the pass word. This added word is computer generated and is associated with the time of input. For the Apple/Mac user the Apple OS/X operating system is and has been very reliable and not prone to the virus attacks as other operating systems. For the general Macintosh user, the chances of getting hacked are low, especially if that user does not frequent any online chat facilities or make any on-line purchases; things of that nature.Apple/Mac computers have software package called, â€Å"SecureMac† which is a virus protection software only for Apple/Mac computers. Microsoft Windows has been most of the target for security issues and breeches in security. Virus’s, malware, spyware have all been problems with accessing Windows-based operating systems. Security for these is ongoing and because of the changing threats from viruses. Windows s ecurity has access control; password, file protection, and all can be protected by using the windows configuration files on the operating systems.Conclusion for this paper shows that each Operating System has memory management, processing management, files management, and security for the system to operate. The Operating Systems of UNIX/Linux, Apple/Mac and Microsoft Windows each have operating systems with these features. Each operating system is different but operate in the same manner for the computer system to work. The memory of each operating system is the same as it needs the memory to cache, save, and execute programs within the systems.File processing for each system also is similar but uses other software packages to process the files and deposit the data and execution files for operation. Process management is different because of its dependency on the executable programs in each operating system type. Security for each system is different as the way it is executed in the operating system. Security does the same purpose on each system, it provides security to not allow unauthorized access, system protection, and prevents data loss. The operating system is the main executable program that operates the computer, without it will not operate.As there are different operating systems, they are all making each computer sytem operate to the best way for users. References Haas, J. (2012). WHY UNIX. Retrieved from http:/Linux. about. com/cs/Unix101/a/Whyunix. html Data Expedition. (2012). Retrieved from http://tips. dataexpedition. com/memory/html Inside Windows 2000 by David A. Solomon & Mark E. Russinovich (2012). Operating Concepts (8th ed. ). New York, New York: John Wiley and Sons. (2012) Operating Systems(7th ed. ). New York, New York: Pearson Education Inc. What is NTFS? Local File Systems. (2012). 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